Our acquisition of motor skills develops in three phases: the cognitive, declarative, or controlled processing phase; the association phase; and the procedural autonomy or automatic processing phase. In the cognitive phase the knowledge of our execution is explicit and is based on biomechanical ‘rules’ to be executed. In the autonomous phase the knowledge of execution, i.e., the ‘how’ to do it, tends to be implicit, understood, and almost non-verbalizable in which executions are smooth, fast, and almost effortless.
Implicit learning is that in which we are not conscious about how we learn. It is a non-intentional learning that is used constantly since much is acquired without us realizing it. It was key to survival and evolution, and may have been the first type of learning to exist. Explicit learning, on the other hand, manifests not only our intention to learn but also the awareness of what is being learned, and therefore requires sustained attention.
Explicit learning methods are oriented towards awareness of the details of the movements to be performed. The instructor/coach provides extensive instruction and feedback. In contrast, implicit learning methods tend to minimize the amount of information received.
Explicit learning is the most traditional way of learning and is based on verbal instructions, being unavoidable in the initial phases while learning to ski. It is useful for teaching children and seems to be more effective when we have a certain level of technical mastery. The path of motor performance knowledge from beginner to expert becomes unconsciously less and less explicit, moving towards automaticity but in situations where we are under pressure, this automaticity tends to diminish because we are prone to exercise conscious control of our own performance.
According to Rich Masters, professor of human movement psychology, explicit knowledge is made up of rules and facts that we are aware of and can express; whereas implicit knowledge is that which we know, so to speak, but are not aware of and therefore can hardly manifest. It is intuitive knowledge, an unconscious process where there are no conscious attempts at learning.
Implicit learning is not instructions free: it can be applied with a minimum of instructions. It is not that all learning must be implicit but the application of both methods in different situations is recommended. It will be up to each instructor and coach consideration or intuition when to apply each. Generally, novice ski pros rely more on explicit learning while as they become more proficient they use implicit learning.
In explicit learning, the instructor/coach explains how to optimally execute the technique by transferring declarative knowledge, i.e., providing the specific details of the execution to be performed. In implicit, the learning of the technique can occur without the need for declarative knowledge. As mentioned, it does not mean that we learn without instructions or feedback, but through this type of learning the active participation of our working memory is reduced. In this way the amount of information or knowledge that we receive is minimized to avoid its accumulation before, during, or after the execution.
Implicit learning
It is observed that when we learn implicitly we show a significant improvement in our motor executions but generally, we cannot explain the biomechanical process of the execution, that is, our verbal knowledge is not related to our performance.
A benefit of implicit learning is that the effects of learning are longer lasting and that, in the need for quick responses, what is implicitly learned is firm. In addition, implicitly learned skills are considered more resilient in the face of performance situations under psychoaffective stress that occur in complex environments or in contexts under pressure. However, the learning of motor skills inevitably requires certain explicit instructions.
An example of implicit learning is the use of biomechanical analogies, which express just the global characteristics of the execution by relating them to a movement image of other sports or everyday activities in order not to overload our working memory. In this method, the biomechanical rules of the technique are minimized or overlooked. The use of implicit learning through analogies may be applied in the relearning of a movement or technical action by the expert skier who has tried to correct his mistakes through explicit knowledge given by instructors or coaches.
Another method of implicit learning is that of error minimization. To apply this method, it is necessary, on the one hand, to facilitate practicing in an environment that allows the minimum occurrence of errors (slightly inclined and wide slope, obstacles free, reduced traffic, compact snow, optimal visibility, adequate equipment, accessible lifts). Minimizing errors reduces the accumulation of our declarative knowledge, i.e., the instructor does not waste time correcting and explaining the same thing in a different way -which accumulates more information- and is limited to reinforcing correct execution. On the other hand, the difficulty and demand in the execution of the technique must be very gradual.
A third method of implicit learning is to direct attention towards the effect of the actions that are executed (external focus of attention), instead of directing it towards how we execute them (internal focus of attention). An example of this might be to focus on the behavior of our skis instead of directing the focus of attention to the movements of our feet. It is believed that directing the focus of attention externally facilitates automaticity in motor performance.
Introducing a second distracting cognitive activity also serves to divert attention away from the ongoing motor performance, allowing for implicit learning. An example of its application would be skiing down a given slope counting two by two, or running a slalom course by singing aloud.
