In a broad sense, memory is the mental process of retaining knowledge and recording experiences for later retrieval when necessary. Memory is fragile, inaccurate, and subject to influence; it is neither perfect nor reliable. The orientation of attention and the implementation of anticipatory strategies also depend on this function. Memory is involved in the comparison of new stimuli with those already stored, a process that facilitates decision making.
We can state that memory is a continuous, complex, multidimensional, and reconstructive procedure. This is due to the synaptic plasticity by which neuronal networks are constantly reorganizing themselves according to new experiences and learning that produce changes in long-term memory. The incessant mental reconstruction of memory tends to transform the past and adapt it to the present due to the demands of adaptation to the environment. Skiing produces a benefit in the memory of those who practice it. Without the mechanism of memory, skiing would be impossible.
Main Memory Typologies
There is no single classification of memory since each author points out his own interpretations according to a certain referential framework. The following classification attempts to match the most frequent categorizations, taking time as a common denominator:
1. Sensory Memory refers to the immediate and initial encoding of sensory information recorded through sensations, shapes, colors, and intensities of stimulus features. It allows to momentarily retain information coming from the environment through the senses that will be later dismissed or stored in the working or operative memory. The main types of sensory memory are iconic (visual stimuli), echoic (sound stimuli) and haptic (moving tactile stimuli).
- Iconic Memory allows the permanent flow of visual information in the form of a photographic memory or images that are constantly updated and reach the brain, being stored for tenths of seconds after their physical disappearance. It is important both in the detection of changes in the visual environment and in the inability to locate differences between two continuous images separated by an interval, called change blindness, whereby the ability to compare two successive images is reduced. While it might be thought that this type of very brief memory is a defect, in reality, the goal is adaptability to the environment and its use as a survival mechanism. The skier is constantly exposed to a variety of stimuli entering his visual field. If their brain were to attend to and process all these stimuli, it would make their movements extremely difficult.
- Echoic or Phonological Memory retains auditory information received from the environment for about three or four seconds before it is processed. It makes it possible to retain sounds in suspense for brief instants and, in spite of its fleeting nature, it is frequently used when skiing. It is applied, for example, to remember the name of the instructor or classmates; when capturing the noise produced by the edges in contact with the snow, different recognition methods are activated that constitute different forms of memory that inform different snow consistencies; or, when skiing a crowded and noisy slope, the skier’s brain tends to separate the different auditory stimuli and determine the most relevant or diverse from those he is used to hearing. The more relevant the acoustic information, the more motivated the skier will be to process it and keep it active.
- Haptic Memory refers, in the case of the skier, to memories of pressure and vibration sensations while in motion. The two composite subsystems in this memory are the cutaneous system, through stimulation of the skin, and the kinesthetic system in terms of muscular and joint sensations during movement and motion.
- 2. Short-term or Working Memory is limited to a few elements and is complemented by long-term memory for decision making. Research has shown that the use of this type of memory has the same limitations for both a beginner and expert skiers but that it is the long-term memory that distinguishes the latter. This memory is the period of time needed to rearrange new information with previous knowledge and skills to generate the understanding of a new knowledge or skill. It lasts a few minutes, sometimes up to a few hours and serves to solve immediate executions, since its capacity and time are limited. It has the particularity of losing what was in mind to perform due to slight distractions. For the working memory to function properly, it must be guided by the long-term memory.
In long-term memory, information is organized to facilitate access when required. It encompasses different knowledge about the physical environment and the arrangement of this knowledge makes it possible to make sense of the present reality and anticipate what may happen. It could be said to be independent: it can store as much as it can forget information and the duration of storage, which is relatively permanent and unlimited, varies from a few minutes to a lifetime.
It includes two subtypes: explicit or declarative memory, i.e., the ‘know what’ in terms of storing information about events, as well as knowledge that allows the expression of thoughts. The declarative characteristic of this type of memory is precisely the possibility of verbalizing the execution of skiing technical gestures and action strategies. This type of memory is part of long-term memory and allows remembering previous experiences, facts, places, or words in an intentional way, constituting conscious knowledge. It is further divided into semantic memory and episodic memory.
Semantic memory is the concrete memory related to specific facts or knowledge of the external world, names of slopes, equipment, names of different types of snow, specific movements and actions visualized with synchronized demonstrations in situ, which facilitates the memorization of technical concepts.
Episodic memory refers to memories or stories that are linked when recalling past events in specific spatiotemporal, sensory, or perceptual contexts of the events that occurred. It refers to memories or stories that are intertwined when recreating events or incidents from past skiing. Generally, this type of memory is one in which the skier is sure of what happened, but remembers only the overall aspect of the event, not the details.
The other subtype of long-term memory is implicit or non-declarative memory, because it is more complicated to verbalize, and refers to knowledge about the execution of learned actions. It includes the unintentional retrieval of previous experiences without the skier being aware that he is experiencing a memory, influencing his present behavior and allowing him to learn almost without realizing it. One segment of this type of memory is procedural memory, which is unconscious and represents “knowing how”, encompassing skills or abilities acquired by repeated experiences such as skiing on moguls, balancing on an icy area, or attenuating contact with the ground after a jump.
Framework Matrix: Skiing Memory Typologies and Their Applications
| Memory Typology | Definition & Characteristics | Duration & Capacity | Subtypes | Skiing Application / Example |
| 1. Sensory Memory | Immediate and initial encoding of environmental information recorded through sensations, shapes, colors, and intensities. | Fleeting and momentary; automatically dismisses or transfers data to working memory. | • Iconic • Echoic • Haptic | Allows a skier to filter out irrelevant environmental stimuli so the brain is not overwhelmed while moving down a slope. |
| • Iconic Memory | Permanent flow of visual information in the form of photographic images that are constantly updated. | Stored for tenths of seconds after physical disappearance. | N/A | Prevents the skier from being overwhelmed by every single visual stimulus, assisting in adaptability via “change blindness.” |
| • Echoic (Phonological) | Memory that retains and suspends auditory information received from the environment. | Lasts for about 3 to 4 seconds before processing. | N/A | Used to remember an instructor’s name, isolate noise on a crowded slope, or recognize snow consistency through the sound of edges contacting the snow. |
| • Haptic Memory | Memories of pressure and vibration sensations experienced while in motion. | Fleeting (Sensory) | • Cutaneous (skin stimulation) • Kinesthetic (muscular/joint sensations) | Captures tactile feedback of pressure, vibration, and body positioning during movement and motion on the snow. |
| 2. Short-Term / Working Memory | A temporary system used to rearrange new information with previous knowledge to solve immediate executions. | Lasts from a few minutes up to a few hours; limited capacity and highly prone to slight distractions. | N/A | Used to process immediate actions. Limited equally for beginners and experts; depends heavily on long-term memory guidance to function properly. |
| 3. Long-Term Memory | Organized knowledge about the physical environment that makes sense of reality and enables anticipation. | Relatively permanent and unlimited capacity; lasts from a few minutes to a lifetime. | • Explicit (Declarative) • Implicit (Non-declarative) | Distinguishes expert skiers from beginners. It stores information and past experiences to guide working memory and decision-making. |
| • Explicit (Declarative) | Conscious, intentional retrieval of previous experiences, facts, places, or words. Represents “knowing what.” | Permanent / Unlimited (Long-Term) | • Semantic • Episodic | Allows a skier to verbalize the execution of technical gestures, action strategies, and conscious knowledge of skiing. |
| – Semantic Memory | Concrete memory related to specific facts, concepts, or generalized knowledge of the external world. | Permanent / Unlimited (Long-Term) | N/A | Remembering specific facts like names of slopes, skiing equipment, types of snow, and technical concepts demonstrated in situ. |
| – Episodic Memory | Memories or stories linked to past events in specific spatiotemporal, sensory, or perceptual contexts. | Permanent / Unlimited; usually captures overall events rather than exact details. | N/A | Recreating stories or incidents from past skiing trips where the skier is sure of what happened but only recalls the general aspect. |
| • Implicit (Non-Declarative) | Unintentional retrieval of learned actions and experiences that influence present behavior without conscious awareness. | Permanent / Unlimited (Long-Term) | • Procedural Memory | Allows a skier to learn almost without realizing it and perform physical actions automatically without needing to verbalize them. |
| – Procedural Memory | Unconscious memory that represents “knowing how” to execute physical skills or abilities. | Permanent / Unlimited (Long-Term); built through repeated experiences. | N/A | Executing complex physical skills automatically, such as skiing on moguls, balancing on an icy patch, or absorbing impact after a jump. |
