According to the Theory of motor acquisition, declarative knowledge, that is, the representation of knowledge that is consciously accessible, is used at initiation levels; while procedural knowledge (which is unconsciously accessible) is used at experience levels. When learning to ski, skills develop gradually, having to concentrate less and less on our executions.
This process is based on three stages:
- In the cognitive stage we focus on what we are about to learn. We use mental processes to develop the motor program of the execution to be performed through our mental representation. Make use of the declarative knowledge of our working or short-term memory to incorporate motor rules and put them into practice while skiing, for example, “I have to look ahead”. At this stage, our mental mechanisms are used such as capturing information about the execution, deliberating the motor execution to be performed, applying mental visualization to imagine the execution and practice it correctly, or to correct an error or a technical deviation.
The main problem we have to solve here is to understand what we have to do. We receive verbal and/or visual information about the motor execution to be performed. This information is treated as consciously known concepts and ideas. We then relate concepts and generate maps or conceptual networks of the technique or biomechanical rules. Executing movements and actions formulated by the instructor or coach allows us to process the information received.
In this phase we produce the general idea, that is, the image of the movements to understand the basic structure of execution and coordination of the technical gesture. Executions are slow, imprecise, and inconsistent then become consistent, precise, and controlled allowing attention to be focused on external aspects of the environment.
- The associative stage is characterized by receiving less verbal information, experiencing discontinuous and constantly adjusting performances. At this stage we try to coordinate all technical elements and transfer declarative knowledge to procedural knowledge, i.e., from ‘what’ to do to ‘how’ to do it. We familiarize with the task and try to differentiate relevant movements from irrelevant ones. As we progress, we gradually leave the conscious control of the execution and orient ourselves towards the observation of new information provided by the environment.
It is important that at the intermediate and advanced levels, the cognitive and associative stages are frequently re-examined to promote motor re-education. This will serve to drop old habits as well as to learn more efficient ones. Re-examining the cognitive stage means acquiring new knowledge. Generally, the advanced skier tends to resist going through this because doesn’t like feeling awkward or uncomfortable trying new ways of executing the same movements and actions. He may perceive himself as a beginner and would not want to experience the frustration of the first attempts. He might change his attitude if the instructor’s or trainer’s proposal, when announcing an apprenticeship, presents it as something ‘better’ rather than something ‘new’.
- The autonomous stage is the final stage in the motor acquisition process and the longest. Execution becomes automatic, cognitive processing is minimized. We can attend to and process other external information such as tactics, terrain condition, or traffic. Our reasoning is reduced to a minimum, acts automatically, and can reach a flow state. On the one hand, the positive thing about this stage is that we require less cognitive attention on our executions. On the other hand, we can think about irrelevant things or direct attention to the result, instead of remaining focused on the process of the descent. Paying attention in this phase, although it is automated, does not mean that this automatism implies appropriate executions. We may unconsciously reinforce the incorrect execution and feel comfortable doing so because we have automated it.
Other phases of the motor learning process are divided into:
- Acquisition phase: we learn the motor activity related to skiing.
- Retention phase: we are able to execute movements and actions even after considerable time without practicing.
- Transfer phase: we can apply what we have learned in different environmental conditions or in more complex situations.
Meaningful learning theory
This theory proposes that we learn depending on our previous structure, which we relate to the thing to be learned. It is based on relational learning, i.e., articulating previous experiences to complement and/or modify the technical schemas and the current schematic reality, allowing deep learning within its conceptual framework.
This relationship between the technical conceptual framework and the perception of the current skiing reality is cyclical. We observe this reality through our previous knowledge and motor schemas and thus construct a representation of our own skiing. By ordering the representation of reality through a new and better motor experience, or ideal technique, we incorporate it into our conceptual and sensory structure, which allows us to complete, modify, or improve our personal technique.
The incorporated motor experiences will generate new cognitive and sensory representations creating the cycle of ‘previous sensory representation’ to ‘technical conceptual framework’ to ‘new sensory representation’. This would produce a longer lasting retention than just practicing performances since it allows new executions to be stored in muscle memory, or motor retention, for the long term.
Socio-cognitive theory
The Socio-cognitive theory attempts to explain learning processes by observing the actions of others. Also called modeled learning, it is that in which a ‘model’ (instructor, coach, another skier) is observed performing a certain behavior which is learned by the observer (learner). Modeling (imitation of models) and learning by observation (vicarious learning) are a fundamental part in the acquisition of motor skills. Modeling would not only collaborate in acquiring the image of the model’s movement or behavior; it would also favor the creation of attitudes in coping with challenging situations.
By observing in others the consequences of the execution of a given action, such consequences will serve as a reference to the observer. Thus, learning will be more effective the more the observer identifies with the observed person or model. Observing other skiers’ responses to different situations creates learning opportunities. It would not be necessary to have prior practice or to get constant reinforcement from the instructor/coach, although both aspects are useful.
Observation allows learning motor skills both positively and negatively. It is positive when the observed model executes the ideal motor action. It is negative when the model does not execute the ideal action or when executes it but the observer does not have the ability to reproduce it. Observational learning is based on the assumption that images are better than words and that too much explanation is worse than no explanation.
The benefits of this learning style are that it is less rigorous than conditioned learning and that the observer expands his capabilities to manage the environment.
As learners, we observe and adopt some aspect of the observed behavior through the following phases:
- During the initial phase of observational learning we try to mentally copy the image of the execution to be performed. This global image does not contain the sensations associated with the movements to be performed.
- Throughout the consolidation phase the mental image tends to become more precise, allowing the refinement of the technical elements of the execution. It should be clarified that the motor image to be sought is not to imagine another skier but to imagine ourselves going down the slope because, in this way, the mirror neurons involved in our motor system are activated: we learn when we visually imagine ourselves doing it.
- In the automation phase the image is properly automated in reciprocity with the ideal of the technique. The motor execution tends to correspond to the motor image which is improved by the accumulation of positive experiences. In this phase it is valuable to practice observation with ‘old eyes to the new’ and with ‘new eyes to the old’ (innovative integration).
